Subject: chief
Culture: Abor / Adi
Setting: tribal warfare, northeast frontier of British India mid 19th-early 20thc
Evolution:
Context (Event Photos, Primary Sources, Secondary Sources, Field Notes)
* Heath/Perry 1999 p16
"The name 'Abors' ('barbarians' or 'unfriendlies') was given to this people by the Assamese. Closely related to the Akas, Daflas, and Miris, their territory lay along the Dihang River and straddled the frontier with Tibet. Their principal sub-tribes comprised the Padam (or Bor Abors), Pasi, Minyong, and Galong. Each consisted of numerous independent villages thought to be capable of fielding 10,000-15,000 warriors in the 1870s. However, inter-tribal rivalries prevented them from ever putting these numbers to good effect. They had a reputation as 'the most formidable northern frontier tribe.'
"First British contact with the Abors occurred in 1826, and they remained on friendly terms until the 1840s .... In 1847, however, the Abors attacked a party of British troops that had been sent to rescue some Cacharis seized during a raid: this resulted in the first British expedition against them the following year. After further minor confrontations and the failure of several punitive expeditions, the British adopted a conciliatory policy, and the Abors agreed to recognise the British frontier in exchange for an annual posa (subsidy).
"Though there were no further confrontations for 30 years, the subsidy had the unintended effect of encouraging the Abors to believe that 'we were bribing them to be good neighbours because we had felt ourselves too weak to compel them to remain so.' The Padam invasion of neighbouring Mishmi territory in 1881 led to a deterioration in relations with the British, and in 1893-4 a spate of Abor raids prompted a British expedition, which was only partially successful. A blockade was then imposed on the Abor frontier and posa payments were discontinued. Following a general submission, sanctions against the Pasis and Minyongs were lifted in 1896, and against the Padams in 1900."
* Arunachal Living Heritage online > Anglo-Abor War
"This Himalayan hill community is known for their warrior identity, and has a history of wars and conflict both with other tribes, and the British colonisers. During the time when the freedom struggles were breaking out in other parts of the country, the Adis of the Siang region bravely fought against the imperial policy of colonial expansion of the erstwhile British rulers in India. The Adis fought quite a few wars against the British to stop them from entering their habitats. Though the British could penetrate into the Brahmaputra Valley as far up as Pasighat, they could not make way beyond that, owing to the dense and impenetrable forests of the foothills and mountainous terrains of the Eastern Himalayas. The Adis were also hostile and uncooperative towards the intruders, who were trying to access their land and natural resources primarily for commercial and trading interests. Their war with the British were fought at various stages and they had a name for each war - Bitbor Mimak (1858), Bongal Mimak (1859), Nijom Mimak (1894) and Poju Mimak(1911).
"The first visit of the British to the Adi land is reported to be in 1826, after the Treaty of Yandaboo, by Captain Bedford which was thwarted by the Adis. This led to a series of four military expeditions, the first and second of which were carried out along the right bank of river Siang in 1858 and 1859 leading to the first Anglo-Abor War known as ‘Bitbor Mimak’ in 1858 and the second Anglo-Abor War known as ‘Bongal Mimak’ in 1859. The British forces had to pull back in the consecutive expeditions or wars because of the unprecedented strong retaliation offered by the Adi warriors. The Britishers carried out a third military expedition along the left bank of Siang, led by J F Needham, assistant political officer, Sadiya, Captain Maxwell and Lieutenant East in 1894, centred around Damroh village that led to the 3rd and crucial Anglo-Abor War known popularly in oral history as Nijom Mimak. It is evident from many historians and scholars like Agnus Hemilton in his Book "In Abor Jungles of North East" and A. Mackenzie "The North-East Frontier of India'' that a huge boulder stockade (locally called Bongal Yapgo) held back the advancing troops for several days. Their ambitious advance was halted by a 10ft high and 2000 yards long Bongal Yapgo that was built by bare hands of the determined villagers with locally available huge boulders, most measuring 4-5 feet across, with bamboo peepholes for firing arrows from within. The present day remnants of Bongal Yapgo is a testimony of fearless, proud and freedom loving nature of the Adis, who were fiercely defiant to any subjugation by the mighty British regime. Bongal Yapgo is not only a symbol of simple stockade but it earned a long history of the land and people. It has a history to tell about independence and confrontations, submission and subjugation of the Adis with the British regime. The fourth and last Anglo-Abor War in 1911-12, which is one of the most important Anglo-Abor Wars in the history of the freedom movement in Arunachal Pradesh known as the Poju Mimak was fought from October 6, 1911, to January 11, 1912. The land of Adis remained literally independent without being annexed or controlled by the British until the last part of the 19th century."
* Hamilton 1912 p18
"For a long time past the Abors have been cocks of the Assam border. Very independent and quarrelsome, they had come to regard themselves as the rulers of this far-distant corner of India from the fact that so many of the Miri and the Mishmi tribes had submitted to their exactions. It is to be feared, too, that the success of the [British Raj] expedition has been a sad blow to their self-esteem, for it has brought peace where before peace was an unknown quantity."
Helmet
* Hamilton 1912 p20-21
"The principal thing which the men make out of bamboo is a head-piece in the shape of a jockey-cap, which is worn on the back of the head with the peak slanting down the neck. The cap is generally adorned with a 'bheem-raj' of king crow's feather, or of cock's feathers, boar's tushes, mithun skin or yak's tail. It is made so well that it js capable of turning a direct or even a glancing cut from sword and spear."
* Heath/Perry 1999 p41, 42
"[The Abor helmet] was most often made of tightly woven basketwork, with a stout brim and a crown strengthened by additional strips of cane. In combat it was secured by means of a chin strap. [...]
"[Chieftain helmets] were ornately decorated using materials such as hornbill and crow feathers, boar's tusks, hornbill beaks and pieces of bear, bison or deer-skin dyed red or black. The boar's tusks were normally attached at the front as an additional defence against sword-cuts, the hornbill beak surmounted the crown, and a red-dyed yak tail hung at the back."
* Egerton 1968 p86
"On State occasions they appear in imposing helmets made of cane adorned with pieces of bear-skin, yak tails dyed red, boars' tusks, and the huge beak of the buceros."
* India Netzone online > Abor tribes
"According to the customs of the region, the male folks often wear helmets that are prepared from cane, bear and deerskin."
* Biebuyck/Van den Abbeele 1984 p162
"Worn with an elaborate war dress, these war helmets are occasionally covered at the top with bear fur or dyed yak tail; beaks and tusks of boars may also be fixed atop the helmet. Similar helmets, either in a simple version for everyday use or with elaborate adornment for ceremonies, for hunting or warfare, are widespread in the northeastern Indian frontier."
* PhotoFrem 2025-10-14 online > The Abor tribe culture in India
"Men actually wear helmets made from cane, bear skin, and deer skin during special ceremonies. They definitely use these materials for important occasions."
Costume
* Hamilton 1912 p19-20
"During the greater part of the year the only dress of the Abors -- and this applies both to men and women -- is a loin-cloth of bark. In some of the villages the men wear a sleeveless cloth jacket ...."
* India Netzone online > Abor tribes
"Abor tribes adopt a special type of attires and costumes [sic]. It consists of one multi-purpose cloth, popularly known as the `galae[`]. Both men and women wear these clothes, which are tied around the `loins`, falling down in `loose strips`."
* PhotoFrem 2025-10-14 online > The Abor tribe culture in India
"As per Abor tradition, both men and women wear a multi-purpose cloth called “galae” that is tied around the waist and hangs in loose strips."
* Heath/Perry 1999 p42
"Chieftains and wealthy warriors wore short-sleeved wollen coats imported from Tibet. These were either sprinkled with small decorative designs, striped, coloured or left plain white (or off-white). Clans appear to have worn their own distinctive patterns ...."
* Egerton 1968 p86
"They wear coloured coats without sleeves, or long Tibetan cloaks."
Weapons
* Heath/Perry 1999 p41-42
"The most characteristic Abor weapons were bow and arrows and either a short, one-edged dao or a long, straight sword of Tibetan origin. Their arrows -- carried in a bamboo quiver which had a lid and an outside 'pocket' -- were poisoned with a mixture of aconite and croton berries. Most men also carried a dagger, and some were armed with a 7-8ft (2.1-2.4m) thrusting spear. Abor shields were usually made of interwoven strips of bamboo and were never decorated in any way. They were about 3ft (91cm) long, 20in (50cm) wide and very slightly curved.
[...] The Abors possessed very few firearms, even at the end of the period covered here [1837-1901]. However, a few antiquated Tower muskets could be found in the villages nearest to the British frontier, and small numbers of Tibetan matchlocks filtered into the more northern districts."
* Hamilton 1912 p24
"For arms they possess bamboo shields, cross-bows, ordinary bows and arrows with iron tips poisoned with aconite, very long spears, daggers, and the strong, straight-cutting swords (or dhaos), which are reported to come from Tibet. It was with these weapons moreover that the tribesmen endeavoured to check the progress of the [British Raj] punitive columns. Though their arms were not modern arms of precision, in the hands of the Abor expert they could be, and were, extraordinarily serviceable."
* Egerton 1968 p86
"Their arms comprise the cross-bow, bows and arrows, the latter used with or without poison; very long spears, daggers, and, lastly, a long straight cutting sword, on which, by their own account, they chiefly rely in warfare."
Jewelry
* Hamilton 1912 p21
"[T]he men coil strips of bamboo round their arms and legs. Each sex is very partial to necklaces of turquoise stones, and to all kinds of beads."
Tattooing
* Hamilton 1912 p19
"Both sexes tattoo, the men wearing a cross on the forehead between the eyebrows ...."
Caltrops
* Hamilton 1912 p21-22
"For purposes of protection, the Abors largely use panjees, or pieces of bamboo, hardened to the toughness of steel by being placed in hot ashes. When thoroughly fired the stakes are sharpened at one end and stuck into the ground at an angle that just catches the foot of an unobservant walker. In this state they easily penetrate a soft boot or gaiter, and are disastrous to a barefoot coolie. They are laid in thousands all round a village, or are concealed under leaves about the paths leading to it."
